Apportionment is the process of allocating political power among a set of principles (or defined constituencies). In most representative governments, political power has most recently been apportioned among constituencies based on population, but there is a long history of different approaches.

The United States Constitution The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States. It provides the framework for the organization of the United States government and for the, however, apportions political power Political power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the representatives of national sovereignty. Political differently between its upper house An upper house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. An upper house is typically a senate, the Senate The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the lower house being the House of Representatives. The composition and powers of the Senate and the House are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution . Each U.S state is represented by two senators, regardless of population. Senators serve staggered, and its lower house A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house, the House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives, commonly referred to as the "House," is the lower house of the bicameral United States Congress, the upper house being the United States Senate. Within the Senate, each state is represented by two seats, the result of compromise when the constitution was written. Seats in the US House of Representatives (the House) are apportioned among the states based on the relative population of each state in the total population of the union. The states then create districts from which representatives will be elected to serve in the US House of Representatives. The ideal is that each district would have an equal amount of population. States can lose or gain seats at each decennial census. Districts must be redrawn within each state after each census to reflect population changes.

Apportionment is also applied in party-list proportional representation Party-list proportional representation systems are a family of voting systems emphasizing proportional representation in elections returning multiple candidates (e.g. elections to parliament). They can also be used as part of mixed additional member systems elections to distribute seats between different parties once they've won a particular percentage of the vote. Current philosophy is that each person's vote should carry the same weight in legislative bodies that are derived from population.

There are many different mathematical schemes for calculating apportionment, which can produce different results in terms of seats for the relevant party or sector. Additionally, all methods are subject to one or more anomalies An apportionment paradox exists when the rules for apportionment in a political system produce results which are unexpected or seem to violate common sense.

With the Hamilton method The largest remainder method is one way of allocating seats proportionally for representative assemblies with party list voting systems. It is a contrast to the highest averages method, party A with vote total P(A) is entitled to its mth seat before party B with vote total P(B) is entitled to its nth seat if and only if P(A)/Q-m > P(B)/Q-n, where Q is a fixed amount called a quota.

A popular alternative is a family of methods where the condition can be represented as P(A)/f(m-1) > P(B)/f(n-1) where f(x) is a function that, for practical applications, yields a number between x and x+1. Five choices for f(x) have received support over the years:[1]

Contents

Malapportionment

Malapportionment, or unequal representation, is broad and systematic variance in the size of electoral constituencies resulting in disproportionate representation for a given voter. Malapportionment is only possible within electoral systems A voting system or electoral system is a method by which voters make a choice between options, often in an election or on a policy referendum that have districted constituencies - an electoral system with only one national constituency such as those in Israel Israel , officially the State of Israel (Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל (help·info), Medīnat Yisrā'el; Arabic: دَوْلَةُ إِسْرَائِيلَ‎, Dawlat Isrā'īl), is a country in Western Asia located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the and the Netherlands The Netherlands (pronounced /ˈnɛðɚləndz/ ; Dutch: Nederland, pronounced [ˈneːdərlɑnt] ( listen)) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located in North-West Europe. It is a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany cannot be malapportioned.

There is no single agreed upon way of measuring malapportionment. Using the ratio of the largest district to the smallest district may seem like an obvious way, but it does not tell us the overall degree of malapportionment.

When this ratio is low, malapportionment is absent. For example, in the US, congressional districts of the same state must be as equal in populations as possible. But even with no malapportionment, there may be gerrymandering Gerrymandering is a form of boundary delimitation in which electoral district or constituency boundaries are deliberately modified for electoral purposes, thereby producing a contorted or unusual shape. The resulting district is known as a gerrymander; however, that word can also refer to the process involved.

But when the ratio is high, it only says something about the two extreme districts and nothing more. For example, in India, every district is assigned one member in the national lower chamber. The largest district, Thane, had a population of 1,744,592 in 1991. That same year the smallest district Lakeshadweep had a population of 31,665. Even though Lakeshadweep was outnumbered nearly 50:1, this information does not tell us the overall degree of malapportionment nationwide. If the smallest and highest populated districts are outliers, they could represent extreme cases although the overall country has a very low degree of malapportionment.

An additional result of malapportionment occurs when reviewing the majority threshold of the different systems. Reaching majority in district elections occurs at a percentage-wise lower level of minimally required number of votes than in proportional elections. The exact difference is, ceteris paribus, 3/5ths the number of votes needed to reach the majority threshold in district elections to the number of votes needed to reach that threshold in proportional elections. Naturally, specific circumstances are always different, but the explanation as provided by LocalParty.Org (United States) shows that this 3/5ths level does point to the bare minimum to achieve the threshold to become the party or parties with the majority. As an example, when 60% of the eligible voters come out to vote, 30% of all eligible voters is the bare minimum to achieve the majority in proportional elections. Due to the specific nature of district elections, the bare minimum is only 18% of all eligible voters to become the majority party.[2]

This specific difference of when a party or parties achieve the majority A majority, also known as a simple majority in the U.S., is a subset of a group consisting of more than half of the group. This should not be confused with a plurality, which is a subset having the largest number of parts. A plurality is not necessarily a majority, as the largest subset may be less than half of the entire group. In British English, threshold is also found when considering the heat of the elections. In district elections, a specific district can become a battlegrounds for two parties that have a 50-50 chance of winning that seat, while such kind of battleground does not occur in proportional elections. Still, what both have in common is that local strongholds can occur. Yet where political strongholds in proportional elections often still contain a few representatives A legislature is a type of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. Legislatures are known by many names, the most common being parliament and congress, although these terms also have more specific meanings. In parliamentary systems of government, of other political colors as well, the result in district elections often translates into a local political monopoly In economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos / μονος + polein / πωλειν (to sell)) exists when a specific individual or an enterprise has sufficient control over a particular product or service to determine significantly the terms on which other individuals shall have access to it. (This is in contrast to a monopsony which relates to a.

Because of the specific results of district elections, that party that had the most votes may still not be the majority party. In the United States, the Republican Party had fewer votes cast for its representatives in the Senate in 2004 than the Democratic representatives, yet had the majority in number of representatives nevertheless. This is only partially explained by the States electing a representative based on geography and not on number of eligible voters.

Malapportionment around the world

United Kingdom

Constituencies tend to vary according to some factor such as geographic location. In the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland[note 7] is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land constituencies in Scotland Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland and Wales Wales ( /ˈweɪlz/ Welsh: Cymru; pronounced [ˈkəmrɨ] (help·info)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom, bordered by England to its east, and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. Wales has a population estimated at three million and is officially bilingual; Welsh and English have equal status, and bilingual signs are the for the Westminster parliament deliberately had smaller electorates than those in England The area now called England has been settled by people of various cultures for about 35,000 years, but it takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in AD 927, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant. The UK retains some malapportionment, due to rules which favour geographically 'natural' districts and which continue to give proportionally greater representation to Wales Wales ( /ˈweɪlz/ Welsh: Cymru; pronounced [ˈkəmrɨ] (help·info)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom, bordered by England to its east, and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. Wales has a population estimated at three million and is officially bilingual; Welsh and English have equal status, and bilingual signs are the. Population movements between boundary reviews have tended to decrease the number of electors in inner-city districts, a trend that usually favours the Labour Party The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom, and is regarded as the principal party of the Left in England, Scotland and Wales since 1920. Labour first surpassed the Liberal Party in general elections during the early 1920s. It formed minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and from 1929 until 1931 and took.[3]

United States

This article needs attention from an expert on the subject. See the talk page for details. WikiProject Politics or the Politics Portal In political science, the initiative provides a means by which a petition signed by a certain minimum number of registered voters can force a public vote on a proposed statute, constitutional amendment, charter amendment or ordinance, or, in its minimal form, to simply oblige the executive or legislative bodies to consider the subject by may be able to help recruit an expert. (November 2008)
This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be and removed. (April 2008)

Congress

Main article: United States congressional apportionment United States congressional apportionment is the process by which seats in the United States House of Representatives are redistributed amongst the 50 states following each constitutionally mandated decennial census. Each state is apportioned a number of seats which approximately corresponds to its share of the aggregate population of the 50

The US Constitution apportions political power in the Senate equally among the states of the union regardless of population or geography. Article V Article Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the Constitution may be altered. Altering the Constitution consists of proposing an amendment and subsequent ratification specifies that this cannot be changed by amendment except with the consent of all affected states. Each state was given equal power. Until passage of the 17th Amendment The Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution established direct election of United States Senators by popular vote. The amendment supersedes Article I, § 3, Clauses 1 and 2 of the Constitution, under which Senators were elected by state legislatures. It also alters the procedure for filling vacancies in the Senate, to be consistent, this made sense because the state legislatures appointed senators.

As the people of each state elected their state legislators, they could be said to indirectly elect the Senators.

The amendment provided for direct election of senators by voters of each state. Due in part to the huge sizes of senatorial constituencies and the changes in political campaigns, the cost of candidacy is approximately $12M. This cost of candidacy has increased a candidate's need for fundraising to run a competitive campaign.[citation needed]

Due to the small number of seats in the US House of Representatives (435) relative to the nation's population of roughly 300 million, the political power of the House of Representatives for several states is malapportioned. The representation was defined by the US Constitution to be based on population. The malapportionment occurs because of discrepancies created with rounding. For example, the per capita influence of the state of Wyoming is almost twice that of Montana because the states have the same number of seats, but the population of Wyoming is smaller. The only cure within the Constitution is to dramatically increase the number of members/seats in the House of Representatives. (See Article The First Article the First is the first proposed amendment to the United States Constitution though it has not yet been ratified. It was the first of twelve amendments produced by the 1st Congress on September 25, 1789, and submitted to the state legislatures for ratification pursuant to Article V of the Constitution, Alabama paradox An apportionment paradox exists when the rules for apportionment in a political system produce results which are unexpected or seem to violate common sense.)

State legislatures

Many states suffered through periods of extended malapportionment, which were created by failures of state legislators to reapportion after significant population shifts across established (often urban) districts or into the state. State legislatures A legislature is a type of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. Legislatures are known by many names, the most common being parliament and congress, although these terms also have more specific meanings. In parliamentary systems of government, were historically the bodies that drew the boundaries, and or set the rules for drawing, the districts in a state. As elected representatives, legislators have a self-interest in preserving their own power, and often did not reapportion for fear of losing political power as changes came to states.

Among the most egregious examples in malapportionment was the Alabama state legislature's refusal to reapportion either the state House or Senate from 1901 until 1972. The result was that by 1960, 25% of the population of the state controlled the majority of the seats in the white, rural-dominated legislature.[4] This rural v. urban split went beyond the related fact of racial and class disfranchisement. In 1901, like most southern states about the turn of the century, white Democratic state legislators had ratified a new constitution with provisions that effectively disfranchised African Americans and poor whites. This was a reversal of the state's having extended universal white suffrage at its establishment in 1819. By 1940, 600,000 poor whites and 520,000 African Americans had been disfranchised.[5] The disfranchised had no representation in the state legislature. The failure of the legislature to reapportion meant also that the hundreds of thousands of industrialized and urbanized populations of the state were underrepresented for most of the 20th century.

In many states in the US, malapportionment was related to racial and class issues. For example, during much of the 20th century in Southern States, the Democratic The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's modern liberal platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. It is one of the world's oldest political parties and boasts the lengthiest record of continuous operation in the United rural areas dominated urban areas by refusing to redistrict although populations changed considerably. While most African Americans were disfranchised in the South, most voters were Democrats, but the urban populations suffered from inadequate representation. The result was that, in some cases, rural districts would have drastically less population than an urban counterpart and still hold an equal or greater number of representatives or senators, thereby diluting the voice in the legislature A legislature is a type of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. Legislatures are known by many names, the most common being parliament and congress, although these terms also have more specific meanings. In parliamentary systems of government, of the latter compared to that of the former.

Several notable lawsuits brought to the Supreme Court in the early 1960s challenged state apportionment systems, with Baker v. Carr Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 , was a landmark United States Supreme Court case that retreated from the Court's political question doctrine, deciding that reapportionment (attempts to change the way voting districts are delineated) issues present justiciable questions, thus enabling federal courts to intervene in and to decide reapportionment cases and Reynolds v. Sims Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 was a United States Supreme Court case that ruled that state legislature districts had to be roughly equal in population among the most important of these. The plaintiffs claimed that malapportionment was discriminatory Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR and illegal under the Fourteenth Amendment The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was adopted after the Civil War as one of the Reconstruction Amendments on July 9, 1868. The US Supreme Court agreed, citing the doctrine of "One Man, One Vote "One Man, One Vote" or "One Person, One Vote" is a slogan that has been used in many parts of the world where campaigns have arisen for universal suffrage. It became particularly prevalent in the less developed countries, during the period of decolonisation and the struggles for national sovereignty from the late nineteen-"[citation needed].

An example of how “One Man, One Vote” has helped to minimize malapportionment is that it requires congressional redistricting every ten years, following the census. One Pennsylvania plan was rejected by courts because the districts were nineteen voters apart, in districts of half a million people. The use of computers allows the states to virtually eliminate malapportionment every ten years with the census data. However, the ruling does allow for gerrymandering Gerrymandering is a form of boundary delimitation in which electoral district or constituency boundaries are deliberately modified for electoral purposes, thereby producing a contorted or unusual shape. The resulting district is known as a gerrymander; however, that word can also refer to the process.[6] During congressional redistricting, districts may each be assigned an equal population, but the use of gerrymandering may lead to similarly unequal representation along political party lines, with the party in power trying to ensure its re-election.

Following the 1990 census, for example, the state house of Tennessee's first attempt to redistrict was rejected by the courts for systematically over-representing rural West Tennessee, then predominantly Democratic, at the expense of rural East Tennessee, then predominantly Republican.[citation needed]. Following the 2000 census, Georgia's first attempt at redistricting the state senate was thrown out for systematically under-populating then Democratic-held districts and systematically overpopulating then Republican-held districts throughout the state.[citation needed].

Australia

The Australian Senate The Senate is the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of Australia, the lower house being the House of Representatives. Senators are popularly elected under a system of proportional representation, normally to terms of six years . Significant power is conferred upon the Senate by the Australian Constitution, including the capacity to block is elected on a basis of equality among the states: all states elect 12 Senators, regardless of population. This leads to Tasmania, with a population of 502,000 people electing the same number of Senators as New South Wales, which has a population of almost 7.1 million. The senate is designed to ensure that the smaller states are not neglected.[7]

The distribution of seats in both the federal and state legislatures have been subject to malapportionment, often resulting in rural constituencies containing far fewer voters than urban ones, in turn often maintaining in power parties with rural support bases despite polling far fewer popular votes. Well-known examples include the differences between urban and rural constituency sizes in many Australian For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of the roughly 250 language groups. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the immediate north and discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by the British states. Past apportionments in Queensland Coordinates: 23°0′S 143°0′E / 23°S 143°E Queensland is a state of Australia that occupies the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory to the west, South Australia to the south-west and New South Wales to the south. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean, Western Australia Western Australia is a state of Australia, occupying the entire western third of the Australian continent. Australia's largest state and the second largest subnational entity in the world, it has 2.2 million inhabitants , 85% of whom live in the south-west corner of the state and the 'Playmander The Playmander was a form of electoral malapportionment in the Australian state of South Australia, in place from 1936 to 1968. It consisted of rural districts enjoying a 2-to-1 advantage in the state parliament, even though they contained less than half of the population, as well as a change from multiple member to single member electorates, and' in South Australia South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country. It covers some of the most arid parts of the continent; with a total land area of 983,482 square kilometres , it is the fourth largest of Australia's six states and two territories were notorious examples. The effects of malapportionment vary with time: deliberate over-representation of rural Queensland changed from favouring Labor to favouring the National Party[citation needed]. See: Australian electoral system#Gerrymandering and malapportionment The Australian electoral system has evolved over nearly 150 years of continuous democratic government, and has a number of distinctive features including compulsory voting, preferential voting and the use of proportional voting to elect the upper house, the Australian Senate

Japan

Another example is the systematic over-representation of voters in more rural prefectures and under-representation of voters in more urban prefectures in elections to the Japanese parliament The National Diet of Japan is Japan's bicameral legislature. It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the House of Councillors (or Chancellors). Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under a parallel voting system. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally responsible for. The conservative Liberal Democratic Party The Liberal Democratic Party , frequently abbreviated to LDP or Jimintō (自民党?), is a centre right, conservative, political party in Japan. It had been one of the most consistently successful political parties in the democratic world. The LDP ruled for nearly 54 years since its founding in 1955 with one eleven month interruption between 1993 thus wins more seats in the Japanese parliament because its voters are concentrated in more rural prefectures.

Spain

The Spanish Congress of Deputies consists of 350 members. Each Spanish province is a constituency entitled to an initial minimum of two seats for a total of 100 seats, while the North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla are allocated one member each. The remaining 248 seats are allocated among the fifty provinces in proportion to their populations. [8] The result is that the smaller provinces are virtually guaranteed a minimum of three seats and have a disproportionate share of seats relative to their electorate. In 2004 for example, Spain had 34,571,831 voters giving an average of 98,777 voters per deputy.[9] However the number of voters per deputy varied from 129,269 in Barcelona [10] and 127,377 in Madrid [11] to 38,714 and 26,177 respectively in the smallest provinces of Teruel [12] and Soria. [13]

In the Spanish Senate each of the forty-seven mainland provinces are assigned four seats, while the three largest islands are allocated three seats each, and the seven smaller islands one each. The North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla are allocated two seats each. Additionally, the legislative assemblies of the seventeen autonomous communities into which the provinces of Spain are grouped are entitled to appoint at least one Senator each, as well as one Senator for every million voters. The result is in a bias in favour of mainly rural areas. For example the community of Madrid with 4,458,540 voters in 2004 has 9 senators while Castilla y León with 2,179,521 voters has a total of 39 senators.

Canada

In Canada, there are 308 federal electoral districts, each represented by one member of parliament. While all districts in the 10 provinces of Canada are based on population, each territory is also given a member of parliament. However, this creates huge disproportion between ridings of the different provinces but as well as between the provinces and territories. As ridings are rarely eliminated, only newly created or manipulated to attend to population shifts, this exacerberate the problem. For example; in 2006, the Alberta riding of Peace River had a population of 138,009 persons, whilst the Prince Edward Island riding of Charlottetown had a population of 32,174 respectively; both ridings receive equal representation in the House of Commons. The territory of Nunavut, along with all other Canadian territories also receives one member of parliament, while in 2006, it had a population of 29,474. Rural ridings even in populous provinces also tend to have constituents for every MP than urban ridings.

References

  1. ^ A seemingly plausible metric can be developed for any of these methods (that is, for each of these methods, a definition of error can be given such that the method minimizes the error; this is discussed in [1].
  2. ^ "Engine". Localparty.org. http://localparty.org/engine.html. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  3. ^ Lewis Baston (2008-10). "The Conservatives and the electoral system because he was the one who shot lincoln". Electoral Reform Society The Electoral Reform Society is a political pressure group based in the United Kingdom which promotes electoral reform. It was founded in January 1884 as the Proportional Representation Society by John Lubbock, the name was changed to Electoral Reform Society in 1958. It is believed to be the oldest organisation concerned with electoral systems in. http://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/oldsite20070123/publications/briefings/The%20Conservatives%20and%20the%20electoral%20system.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
  4. ^ Dr. Michael McDonald, "US Elections Project: Alabama Redistricting Summary", George Mason University, accessed 6 Apr 2008
  5. ^ Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, p.136
  6. ^ Toobin, Jeffrey (2009-01-07). "Annals of Law: The Great Election Grab". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/031208fa_fact. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  7. ^ "Parliament of Australia: Senate: The Senate: a short description". Aph.gov.au. 2006-03-02. http://www.aph.gov.au/Senate/pubs/txtnov96.htm. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  8. ^ "Election Resources on the Internet: Elections to the Spanish Congress of Deputies". Electionresources.org. http://www.electionresources.org/es/index_en.html. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  9. ^ "Election Resources on the Internet: Elections to the Spanish Congress of Deputies - Results Lookup". Electionresources.org. http://www.electionresources.org/es/congress.php?election=2004. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  10. ^ "Election Resources on the Internet: Elections to the Spanish Congress of Deputies - Results Lookup". Electionresources.org. http://www.electionresources.org/es/congress.php?election=2004&province=08. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  11. ^ "Election Resources on the Internet: Elections to the Spanish Congress of Deputies - Results Lookup". Electionresources.org. http://www.electionresources.org/es/congress.php?election=2004&province=28. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  12. ^ "Election Resources on the Internet: Elections to the Spanish Congress of Deputies - Results Lookup". Electionresources.org. http://www.electionresources.org/es/congress.php?election=2004&province=44. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
  13. ^ "Election Resources on the Internet: Elections to the Spanish Congress of Deputies - Results Lookup". Electionresources.org. http://www.electionresources.org/es/congress.php?election=2004&province=42. Retrieved 2010-04-18.

See also

External links

Categories: Political terms | United States congressional districts

 

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