The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. Christianity comprises three major branches: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy (which parted ways with Catholicism in 1054 A.D.) and Protestantism (which came into existence during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th church, with more than a billion members.^[1] The Church's leader is the Pope The pope (from Latin: papa; from Greek: πάππας , an affectionate word for father) is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church (that is, the Latin Rite and the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the see of Rome). The current office-holder is Pope Benedict XVI, who was elected in a who holds supreme authority in concert with the College of Bishops The term College of Bishops is used in Catholic theology to describe the bishops, as the successors of the Apostles in communion with the Pope, who is the Bishop of Rome, as a body. With the Pope, the college shares the pastoral care and government of the Roman Catholic Church. According to canon 336 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law: of which he is the head. A communion The term Communion is derived from Latin communio . The corresponding term in Greek is κοινωνία, which is often translated as "fellowship". In Christianity, the basic meaning of the term communion is an especially close relationship of Christians, as individuals or as a Church, with God and with other Christians. This basic of the Western (Latin Rite The Latin Rite or Latin Church is the majority rite or particular church within the Catholic Church, comprising roughly 80% of its membership. The Latin Rite is one of the 23 sui iuris particular churches within the Catholic Church. This particular church developed in Western Europe and North Africa, where, from classical antiquity to the) church and 22 autonomous In civil law the phrase sui juris indicates legal competence, the capacity to manage one’s own affairs . It also implies someone who is capable of suing and/or being sued in a legal proceeding in their own name, without the need of an ad litem Eastern Catholic churches The Eastern Catholic Churches are autonomous, self-governing particular Churches in full communion with the Bishop of Rome—the pope. They preserve the centuries-old liturgical, devotional, and theological traditions of the various Eastern Christian Churches with which they are associated historically. While doctrinal differences divide these (called particular churches In Catholic canon law, a particular Church is an ecclesial community headed by a bishop or someone recognised as the equivalent of a bishop) comprise a total of 2,795 dioceses In some forms of Christianity, a diocese is an administrative territorial unit administered by a bishop. It is also referred to as a bishopric or Episcopal Area /episcopal see, though strictly the term episcopal see refers to the domain of ecclesiastical authority officially held by the bishop, and bishopric to the post of being bishop. The in 2008.^[2] The Church defines its mission as spreading the gospel In Christianity, the Gospel, good news, Evangelion, or Evangelium is the message of Jesus, the Christ (the Messiah), specifically the coming Kingdom of God, his atoning death on the cross and resurrection, the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost as "helper" (paraclete), and the resulting promise and hope of salvation for the faithful of Jesus Christ Jesus of Nazareth , also known as Jesus Christ or simply Jesus, is the central figure of Christianity, which views him as the Messiah foretold in the Old Testament, with most Christian denominations believing him to be the Son of God and God incarnate who was raised from the dead. Islam and the Baha'i Faith consider Jesus a prophet and also the, administering the sacraments The Sacraments of the Catholic Church are, the Church teaches, "efficacious signs of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us. The visible rites by which the sacraments are celebrated signify and make present the graces proper to each sacrament. They bear fruit in those who receive them and exercising charity. It operates social programs and institutions throughout the world including schools Catholic schools are education ministries of the Catholic Church. Currently, the Church operates the world's largest non-governmental school system, universities, hospitals, missions, shelters and charities Caritas Internationalis is a confederation of 164 Roman Catholic relief, development and social service organisations operating in over 200 countries and territories worldwide. Collectively and individually their mission is to work to build a better world, especially for the poor and oppressed. The first Caritas organisation was started in.^[3]

The Catholic Church teaches that it is the original Church founded by Jesus upon the Apostles In Christianity, the Apostles were missionaries among the leaders in the Early Church and, in the Epistle to the Hebrews,[3:1] Jesus Christ himself. The term was also used, especially by the Gospel of Luke, for "the Twelve," Jesus' inner circle of disciples (students). They were, according to the Acts of the Apostles and Christian, among whom Simon Peter Simon Peter , sometimes called Simon Cephas (Greek: Σιμων Κηφᾶς, Symōn Kēphas; Aramaic: Šimʕōn Kêfâ‎; Syriac: ܫܡܥܘܢ ܟܐܦܐ, Sëmʕān Kêfâ) after his name in Hellenized Aramaic, was a leader of the early Christian Church, who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Peter was was chief. The Church teaches that its bishops In the Catholic Church, a bishop is an ordained minister who holds the fullness of the sacrament of Holy Orders and is responsible for teaching the Catholic faith and ruling the Church, through apostolic succession Apostolic succession is a doctrine, held by some Christian denominations, which asserts that the chosen successors (properly ordained bishops) of the Twelve Apostles, from the first century to the present day, have inherited the spiritual, ecclesiastical and sacramental authority, power, and responsibility that were conferred upon them by the, are consecrated successors of these apostles, and that the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) as the successor of Peter Simon Peter , sometimes called Simon Cephas (Greek: Κηφᾶς, Kēphas; Aramaic: kêfâ‎, "rock, stone") after his name in Hellenized Aramaic, was a leader of the early Christian Church, who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Peter was the son of John or of Jonah, and was from the possesses a universal primacy In the teachings of the Catholic Church, the primacy of the Roman Pontiff is the apostolic authority of the Pope the Bishop of Rome over the several churches that comprise the Catholic Church in the Latin and Eastern Rites. It is also termed "papal primacy", "primacy of Peter", or "Roman primacy"; one might encounter & of jurisdiction and pastoral care Liber Regulae Pastoralis or Regula Pastoralis is a treatise on the responsibilities of the clergy written by Pope Gregory I around the year 590, shortly after his papal inauguration. It became one of the most influential works on the topic ever written. The title was that used by Gregory when sending a copy to his friend Leander of Seville. The. Church doctrines have been defined through 21 ecumenical councils Catholic Ecumenical Councils include 21 councils over a period of 1700 years. While definitions changed throughout history, in today's understanding Ecumenical Councils are assemblies of Patriarchs, Cardinals, residing Bishops, Abbots, male heads of religious orders and other juridical persons, nominated by the Roman Pontiff. They meet to discuss, following the example set by the first Apostles in the Council of Jerusalem The Council of Jerusalem is a name applied by historians to an Early Christian council dated to around the year 50. The council decided that Gentile converts to Christianity were not obligated to keep most of the Mosaic law, including the rules concerning circumcision of males, however, the Council did retain the prohibitions against eating blood,. On the basis of reports in the Gospels A gospel is a writing that describes the life, ministry, death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus. The word is primarily used to refer to the four canonical gospels: the Gospel of Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Gospel of Luke and Gospel of John although it is also used for non-canonical writings such as the Gospel of Thomas. The term "Gospel" of promises made by Jesus to his apostles, the Church maintains that it is guided by the Holy Spirit In Christianity, the Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost, is the spirit or essence of God. In Trinitarian Christian belief, it is the third person of the Holy Trinity. Pneumatology is the theology of the Holy Spirit and so protected from falling into doctrinal error. Catholic beliefs are based on the deposit of Faith Sacred Tradition or Holy Tradition is a technical theological term used in some Christian traditions, primarily in the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox traditions, to refer to the fundamental basis of church authority (containing both the Holy Bible The Books of the Bible are listed differently in the canons of Judaism and the Catholic, Protestant, Greek Orthodox, Slavonic Orthodox, Georgian, Armenian Apostolic, Syriac and Ethiopian churches, although there is substantial overlap. A table comparing the canons of some of these traditions appears below, comparing the Jewish Bible with the and Sacred Tradition Sacred Tradition or Holy Tradition is a technical theological term used in some Christian traditions, primarily in the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox traditions, to refer to the fundamental basis of church authority) handed down from the time of the Apostles In Christianity, the Apostles were missionaries among the leaders in the Early Church and, in the Epistle to the Hebrews,[3:1] Jesus Christ himself. The term was also used, especially by the Gospel of Luke, for "the Twelve," Jesus' inner circle of disciples (students). They were, according to the Acts of the Apostles and Christian, which are interpreted by the Church's teaching authority The Magisterium is the "teaching authority of the Roman Catholic Church". The word is derived from Latin magistra, which originally meant the office of a president, chief, director, superintendent, etc. or teaching, instruction, advice. Those beliefs are formally detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church The Catechism of the Catholic Church is an official exposition of the teachings of the Catholic Church. A provisional, "reference text" was issued by Pope John Paul II on October 11, 1992 — "the thirtieth anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council" — with his apostolic constitution, Fidei depositum. Formal Catholic worship is called the liturgy A liturgy is the customary public worship done by a specific religious group, according to its particular traditions. The word is sometimes rendered by its English translation "service", may refer to an elaborate formal ritual such as the Eastern Orthodox Divine Liturgy and Roman Catholic Mass, or a daily activity such as the Muslim. The Eucharist Eucharist in the Catholic Church refers to both the celebration of the Mass, that is, the Eucharistic liturgy, and the consecrated bread and wine which according to the faith become the body and blood of Christ. Blessed Sacrament is a devotional term used in the Roman Catholic Church to refer to the Eucharistic species is the central component of Catholic worship.

With a history spanning almost two thousand years, the Church is the western world's oldest and largest institution, having played a prominent role in the politics and history of Western civilization The history of Western Civilization traces its roots back to classical antiquity and continues to the present era in Europe, North America and Oceania since the 4th century.^[4] It maintains that it is the "One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church The Four Marks of the Church are a group of four adjectives—one, holy, catholic and apostolic—characteristics that describe the marks or distinctives of the Christian church. They describe a belief within Christendom that the Body of Christ—the church—is characterized by four particular “marks”. These marks were made part of the Nicene" founded by Jesus Christ Jesus of Nazareth , also known as Jesus Christ or simply Jesus, is the central figure of Christianity, which views him as the Messiah foretold in the Old Testament, with most Christian denominations believing him to be the Son of God and God incarnate who was raised from the dead. Islam and the Baha'i Faith consider Jesus a prophet and also the, although it also believes that the Holy Spirit can make use of other Christian communities to bring people to salvation The theological study of salvation is called soteriology. It covers the means by which salvation is effected or achieved, and its results. Salvation may also be called "deliverance" or "redemption" from sin and its effects and that it is called to work for unity among Christians Ecumenism or oecumenism mainly refers to initiatives aimed at greater Christian unity or cooperation. It is used predominantly by and with reference to Christian denominations and Christian Churches separated by doctrine, history, and practice. Within this particular context, the term ecumenism refers to the idea of a Christian unity in the.

Name

The Greek word καθολικός (katholikos), from which Catholic is derived, means "universal". It was first used to describe the Christian Church in the early 2nd century.^[5] Since the East-West Schism The East–West Schism, sometimes known as the Great Schism, divided medieval Christianity into Eastern and Western (Latin) branches, which later became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church, respectively. Relations between East and West had long been embittered by political and ecclesiastical differences and, the Western Church has generally been known as "Catholic", while the Eastern Church has generally been known as "Orthodox".^[6] Following the Reformation The Protestant Reformation was the European Christian reform movement that established Protestantism as a constituent branch of contemporary Christianity. It began in 1517 when Martin Luther published The Ninety-Five Theses, and concluded in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended one hundred and thirty-one years of consecutive European in the 16th century, the church in "communion with the Bishop of Rome" used the term "Catholic" to distinguish itself from the various Protestant churches.^[6] The name "Catholic Church" appears in the title of the Catechism of the Catholic Church The Catechism of the Catholic Church is an official exposition of the teachings of the Catholic Church. A provisional, "reference text" was issued by Pope John Paul II on October 11, 1992 — "the thirtieth anniversary of the opening of the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council" — with his apostolic constitution, Fidei depositum.^[7] It is also the term that Paul VI Pope Paul VI , born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini (26 September 1897 – 6 August 1978), reigned as Pope of the Roman Catholic Church and Sovereign of Vatican City from 1963 to 1978. Succeeding Pope John XXIII, who had convened the Second Vatican Council, he decided to continue it. He fostered improved ecumenical relations with used when signing the documents of the Second Vatican Council.^[8] The name "Roman Catholic Church" has also been used by the Church to refer to itself,^[9] as has "Roman Church The term Holy Roman Church refers strictly to the Church of Rome, the Diocese of Rome, the Holy See or the Apostolic See — they are all one and the same in this context.[citation needed] The incumbent is the Bishop of Rome — the Pope. The Holy Roman Church should not be confused with the Roman Catholic Church[citation needed] even though both".^[10]

History

Early Christianity

Catholic tradition holds that the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ. The New Testament records Jesus's activities and teaching, his appointment of the twelve Apostles and his instructions to them to continue his work.^[11][12] The Church teaches that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church.^[13]

Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas,^{[14][note 1]} and Jesus's apostles gained converts in Jewish communities around the Mediterranean Sea. As preachers such as Paul of Tarsus began converting Gentiles, Christianity began growing away from Jewish practices,^[15] to establish itself as a separate religion.^[16] The new religion was most successful in urban areas, spreading first among slaves and people of low social standing, and then among aristocratic women.^[17]

The early Christian Church was very loosely organized, resulting in diverse interpretations of Christian beliefs.^[18] In part to ensure a greater consistency in their teachings, by the end of the 2nd century Christian communities had evolved a more structured hierarchy, with a central bishop having authority over the clergy in his city.^[19] The organization of the Church began to mimic that of the Empire; bishops in politically important cities exerted greater authority over bishops in nearby cities.^[20] The churches in Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome held the highest positions,^[21] and by the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome began to act as a court of appeals for problems that other bishops could not resolve.^[22] Beginning in the 2nd century, bishops often congregated in regional synods to resolve doctrinal and policy issues.^[23] Doctrine was further refined by a series of influential theologians and teachers, known collectively as the Church Fathers.^[24]

Early Christians accepted Roman practices such as slavery; although the Christians campaigned for humane treatment of slaves while admonishing slaves to behave appropriately towards their masters.^[25] However, Christians refused to participate in sacrifices to Roman gods, or to worship Roman rulers as gods, and consequently became subject to persecution.^[26] The earliest state sanctioned persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire is believed to have occurred in 1st century Rome during the reign of the Emperor Nero. Persecutions of Christians were generally sporadic and localized interspersed by periodic empire-wide persecutions. The great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius is generally viewed as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.^[27] Despite the persecutions, the early Church continued to grow, establishing a more formal hierarchy and beginning to standardize teaching into doctrine. Those who developed the Church institutions, and defined doctrine, are known as the Church Fathers, beginning with Clement of Rome and Irenaeus; with the first great doctrinal dispute arising in the second century over the issues of Gnosticism.^[28]

Late antiquity

Christianity was legalized in 313 under Constantine's Edict of Milan,^[29] and declared the state religion of the Empire in 380.^[30] After its legalization, a number of doctrinal disputes led to the calling of ecumenical councils. The doctrinal formulations resulting from these ecumenical councils were pivotal in the history of Christianity. The first seven Ecumenical Councils, from the First Council of Nicaea (325) to the Second Council of Nicaea (787), sought to reach an orthodox consensus and to establish a unified Christendom. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea convened in response to the rise of Arianism, the belief that Jesus had not existed eternally but was a divine being created by and therefore inferior to God the Father.^[31] To encapsulate basic tenets of the Christian belief, it promulgated a creed that became the basis of what is now known as the Nicene Creed.^[32] In addition, it divided the church into geographical and administrative areas called dioceses.^[33] The Council of Rome in 382 established the first Biblical canon when it listed the accepted books of the Old and New Testament.^[34] Pope Damasus I would round off his claim that the Western Church was the legitimate heir to the original Church in Jerusalem by commissioning a new translation of the Bible in fine classical Latin. He chose his secretary Jerome, who delivered the Vulgate – the Church was now "committed to think and worship in Latin."^[35] The Council of Ephesus in 431^[36] and the Council of Chalcedon in 451 defined the relationship of Christ's divine and human natures, leading to splits with the Nestorians and Monophysites.^[37]

Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople, and the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome".^[38] From circa 350 to circa 500, the bishops, or popes, of Rome steadily increased in authority.^[39]

Middle Ages

After the decline of the Roman Empire, barbarian tribes either converted to Arianism or to orthodox Christianity.^[40] When the Frankish king, Clovis I, converted to orthodox Catholism, thereby allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries he strengthening the position of the Franks, and other tribes such as the Visigoths followed his example.^[41] Beginning in the 6th century European monasteries followed the structure of the Rule of St Benedict,^[42] becoming spiritual centers with workshops for the arts and crafts, scriptoria and libraries, and agricultural centers in remote regions.^[43] By the end of the century Pope Gregory the Great initiated administrative reforms and the Gregorian missions to evangelize Britain;^[44] Early in the 7th century Muslim armies had conquered much of the southern Mediterranean posing a threat to western Christendom.^[45]

In the 8th century, iconoclasm, the destruction of religious images, became a source of conflict with the eastern church.^[46] The papal coronation of the Frankish King Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor in 800^[47] created a paradigm of Western emperors imposing control over the popes.^[48] The invention of the Cyrillic alphabet in the 9th century "is attributed to" the Greek missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius who were sent to greater Moravia.^[49] The 9th century conflicts over ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Byzantine-controlled southern Italy, Bulgarian missions, led to further disagreements that created the East–West Schism which is generally considered to have become formalized in 1054 although there is no single date on which the schism started.^[50] The west remained a part of the Catholic Church, while the eastern (Greek) branch became the Eastern Orthodox churches.^[51] Efforts to mend the schism at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274 and the Council of Florence in 1439 were unsuccessful.^[52]

The Cluniac reform of monasteries sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.^[53] The 11th and 12th century saw internal efforts to reform the church. In 1059 the college of cardinals was created to free papal elections from interference by Emperor and nobility. Lay investiture of bishops, a source of rulers' dominance over the Church, was attacked by reformers and under Pope Gregory VII, erupted into the Investiture Controversy between Pope and Emperor. The matter was eventually settled with the Concordat of Worms in 1122 where it was agreed that bishops would be selected in accordance with Church law.^[54] By the early 1300s a centralized Church organization had been established, a Latin speaking culture was prevalent, the clergy were literate and celibacy was required.^[55]

In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help against renewed Muslim invasions,^[56] which caused Urban to launch the First Crusade aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the Holy Land to Christian control.^[52] The crusades saw the formation of various military orders such as the Knights Templar, the Knights Hospitaller, and the Teutonic Knights.^[57] In 1209, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars, a gnostic Christian sect in Languedoc,^[58] In 1231, Gregory IX instituted the Papal Inquisition to prevent a recurrence of the massacres committed during the twenty-year Crusade and root out the remaining Cathars.^[59]

Mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán, which brought consecrated religious life into urban settings.^[60] These orders also played a large role in the development of cathedral schools into universities.^[61] Scholastic theologians such as the Dominican Thomas Aquinas studied and taught at such universities, and his Summa Theologica was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and Christianity.^[62]

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with Clement V in 1305 moving to Avignon.^[63] The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome,^[64] but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long Western schism with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.^[64] The Great Schism resulted in a call for a "collective authority rather than the single primacy of the bishop of Rome" which gained support, but was overturned in 1417 at the Council of Constance with Martin V declared pope, and a decree issued that the Pope received authority "immediately from Christ".^[65] In reaction to the lack of authority created by the Great Schism, in England John Wycliffe wrote that the "eternal existing Church" was to be found in the Bible and available to all. His work was brought to Bohemia, where in Prague, Jan Hus embraced Wycliffe's ideas and gained wide support. At the Council of Constance, Hus was charged with heresy and ordered to be executed by burning at the stake.^[66]

The Council of Constance, the Council of Basel and the Fifth Lateran Council each attempted to reform internal Church abuses, with the "popular and persistently recommended" creation of a council.^[67] In 1460, following the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, Pope Pius II forbade further appeal for a general council.^[65] Consequently worldly men such as Roderigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) were elected to the papacy,^[68] followed by Pope Julius II who presented himself as a secular prince.^[69] Early in the 16th century, the publication of In Praise of Folly, written by Erasmus, "included some biting criticisms of the unreformed Church."^[70]

In Germany in 1517, Martin Luther sent his Ninety-Five Theses to several bishops.^[71] His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences.^[71] In Switzerland, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the European movement called the Protestant Reformation.^[72]

In Germany, the reformation led to a nine-year war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V. In 1618 a far graver conflict, the Thirty Years' War, followed.^[73] In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion were fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League, with the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre marking the turning point in the conflict.^[74] Survivors regrouped under Henry of Navarre who became Catholic and began the first experiment in religious toleration with his 1598 Edict of Nantes.^[74] This Edict, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants, was hesitantly accepted by Pope Clement VIII.^[75]

The English Reformation during the reign Henry VIII began as a political dispute. When the pope denied Henry's petition for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, he had the Acts of Supremacy passed, making him head of the English Church.^[76] Although he tried to maintain traditional Catholicism, Henry initiated the confiscation of monasteries, friaries, convents and shrines throughout his realm.^[77] Under Mary I, England was reunited with Rome, but Elizabeth I later restored a separate church that outlawed Catholic priests^[78] and prevented Catholics from educating their children and taking part in political life^[79] until new laws were passed in 1778.^[80]

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) became the driving force behind the Counter-Reformation. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation, and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.^[81] It also made structural reforms, most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and laity and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia.^{[81][note 2]} To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the Baroque style in art, music and architecture,^[84] and new religious orders were founded such as the Theatines and the Barnabites in which were established the "evangelistic zeal of the original monastic vocation."^[85] The Society of Jesus was formally established in the mid-16th century,^[86] and they quickly saw the importance of providing education during the Counter-Reformation, viewing it as a "battleground for hearts and minds".^[87] At the same time, the writings of figures such as Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri spawned new schools of spirituality within the Church.^[88]

Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Pope Innocent XI reformed abuses that were occurring in the Church's hierarchy, including simony, nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a large papal debt.^[89] He promoted missionary activity, tried to unite Europe against the Turkish invasion, prevented influential Catholic rulers (including the Holy Roman Emperor) from marrying Protestants but strongly condemned religious persecution.^[89]

Early modern period

The Age of Discovery saw the expansion of Western European power and culture and, given the prominent role of Spain and Portugal, the spreading of Catholicism to the Americas, Asia and Oceania by explorers and missionaries.

Pope Alexander VI had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal^[90] and the ensuing patronato system allowed state authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in the new colonies.^[91] Although the Spanish monarchs tried to curb abuses committed against the Amerindians by explorers and conquerors,^[92] Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish rulers of Hispaniola in 1511 for their cruelty and tyranny in dealing with the American natives.^[93] King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.^[94] and, through the writings of Catholic clergy such as Bartolomé de Las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights^[95] and to the birth of modern international law.^[96] Enforcement of these laws was lax, and some historians blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians; others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.^[97]

In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines.^[98] Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized in India, China, and Japan.^[99] Church growth in Japan came to a halt in 1597 when the Shogunate, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians or Kirishitan's.^[100] An underground minority Christian population survived throughout this period of persecution and enforced an isolation that was eventually lifted in the 19th century.^[101] In China, despite Jesuit efforts to find compromise, the Chinese Rites controversy led the Kangxi Emperor to outlaw Christian missions in 1721.^[102] These events added fuel to growing criticism of the Jesuits, who were seen to symbolize the independent power of the Church, and in 1773 European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the order.^[103] The Jesuits were eventually restored in the 1814 papal bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum.^[104] In Las Californias, Franciscan priest Junípero Serra founded a series of missions.^[105] In South America, Jesuit missionaries sought to protect native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions.

From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power and influence of the Church over Western society.^[106] Eighteenth century writers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopedists wrote biting critiques of both religion and the Church. One target of their criticism was the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV, which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots.

The French Revolution of 1789 brought about a shifting of powers from the Church to the State, destruction of churches and the establishment of a Cult of Reason.^[107] In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy, imprisoning Pope Pius VI, who died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801.^[108] The end of the Napoleonic wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States.^[109] In 1833, Frederic Ozanam began the work of the St Vincent de Paul Society in Paris to assist the poor created by the industrial revolution. The society would grow to more than 1,000,000 members in 142 countries by the year 2010.^[110]

The spread of the British Empire brought the first Catholics to Australasia with the arrival of the First Fleet of convicts at Sydney in 1788 - among them Irish Catholics. Some Irish convicts were transported for political crimes or social rebellion in Ireland, so the British authorities repressed the minority church for the first three decades of settlement. A convict priest, James Dixon, was conditionally emancipated and in 1803, in vestments made from curtains and with chalice made of tin, conducted the first Catholic Mass in Australia.^[111] Soon after, permission to celebrate Mass was revoked and no new priests permitted in the colony until 1820. The Church Act 1836, drafted by the colony's first Catholic legislator, John Plunkett, established legal equality for the different Christian denominations; Australian parliaments gained autonomy from the 1850s; and Australian Catholics - notably Mary MacKillop - came to contribute significantly to health, education and charitable services established throughout the continent during the 19th century.^{[112][113][114][115]} By the close of the century, missionaries had taken Catholicism to the various neighbouring islands of Oceania.^[116]

In Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s.^[117] Church properties were confiscated, bishoprics left vacant, religious orders suppressed,^[118] the collection of clerical tithes ended,^[119] and clerical dress in public prohibited.^[120] Pope Gregory XVI challenged the power of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs by appointing his own candidates as colonial bishops. He also condemned slavery and the slave trade in the 1839 papal bull In Supremo Apostolatus, and approved the ordination of native clergy in the face of government racism.^[121]

Industrial age

In response to the social challenges of the Industrial Revolution, Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum Novarum. It set out Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions, the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.^[122] Although the infallibility of the Church in doctrinal matters had always been a Church dogma, the First Vatican Council, which convened in 1870, affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised under specific conditions.^[123] This decision gave the pope "enormous moral and spiritual authority over the worldwide" Church.^[106] Reaction to the pronouncement resulted in the breakaway of a group of mainly German churches, which subsequently formed the Old Catholic Church.^[124] The loss of the papal states to the Italian unification movement created what came to be known as the Roman Question,^[125] a territorial dispute between the papacy and the Italian government that was not resolved until the 1929 Lateran Treaty granted sovereignty to the Holy See over Vatican City.^[126] At the end of the 19th century, Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.^[127]

The 20th century saw the rise of various politically radical and anti-clerical governments. The 1926 Calles Law separating church and state in Mexico led to the Cristero War^[128] in which over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated,^[129] churches desecrated, services mocked, nuns raped and captured priests shot.^[128] In the Soviet Union following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, persecution of the Church and Catholics continued well into the 1930s.^[130] In addition to the execution and exiling of clerics, monks and laymen, the confiscation of religious implements and closure of churches was common.^[131] During the 1936–39 Spanish Civil War, the Catholic hierarchy supported Francisco Franco's rebel Nationalist forces against the Popular Front government,^[132] citing Republican violence directed against the Church.^[133] Pope Pius XI referred to these three countries as a "Terrible Triangle" and the failure to protest in Europe and the United States as a Conspiracy of Silence.

After violations of the 1933 Reichskonkordat that had guaranteed the Church in Nazi Germany some protection and rights,^[134] Pope Pius XI issued the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge,^[135] which publicly condemned the Nazis' persecution of the Church and their ideology of neopaganism and racial superiority.^[136] After the Second World War began in September 1939, the Church condemned the invasion of Poland and subsequent 1940 Nazi invasions.^[137] In the Holocaust, Pope Pius XII directed the Church hierarchy to help protect Jews from the Nazis.^[138] While Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews by some historians,^[139] the Church has also been accused of encouraging centuries of antisemitism^[140] and Pius himself of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.^[141] Debate over the validity of these criticisms continues to this day.^[139] Thousands of Catholic priests, nuns and brothers were imprisoned and murdered throughout the areas occupied by the Nazis - including Saints Maximilian Kolbe and Edith Stein of Auschwitz .^{[142][143][144]}

Postwar Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms.^{[citation needed]} Even though some clerics collaborated with the Communist regimes,^[145] the Church's resistance and the leadership of Pope John Paul II have been credited with hastening the downfall of communist governments across Europe in 1991.^[146] The rise to power of the Communists in China in 1949 led to the expulsion of all foreign missionaries.^[147] The new government also created the Patriotic Church whose unilaterally appointed bishops were initially rejected by Rome before many of them were accepted.^[148] The Cultural Revolution of the 1960s led to the closure of all religious establishments. When Chinese churches eventually reopened they remained under the control of the Patriotic Church. Many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome.^[149]

Contemporary

The Second Vatican Council initiated in 1962 was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows".^[150] It led to changes in liturgy within the Latin Church, focus of its mission and a redefinition of ecumenism, particularly dialogue with the Orthodox Church and the Anglican and Protestant churches.^[151]

Reception of the council has formed the basis of multifaceted internal positions within the Church since then. A so-called Spirit of Vatican II followed the council, influenced by exponents of Nouvelle Théologie such as Karl Rahner. Some dissident liberals such as Hans Küng claimed Vatican II had not gone far enough.^[152] On the other hand, Traditionalist Catholics represented by figures such as Marcel Lefebvre strongly criticized the council arguing that it defiled the sanctity of the Latin Mass, promoted religious indifferentism towards "false religions" and compromised orthodox Catholic dogma and tradition. A group positioned in between, represented by theologians such as Communio including Pope Benedict XVI, hold that the council was ultimately positive but there were abuses in interpretation.^{[citation needed]}

Teachings of the popes, such as the encyclicals Humanae Vitae and Evangelium Vitae, have opposed contraception^[153] and abortion respectively, describing these views as part of a "culture of life".^[154] Since the end of the 20th century, sex abuse by Catholic clergy have been the subject of media coverage, legal action, and public debate.^[155]

Pope John Paul II became, in 1978, the first non-Italian Pope in 455 years and his 27 year pontificate was to be one of the longest in history, in which he made over 100 international journeys.^[156][157] Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the Soviet Union credited him with hastening the fall of Communism in Europe, and he criticised the emergence of liberation theology among some clergy in South America, asserting that the Church should champion the poor without supporting radicalism or violence.^[158] He also canonised many saints. He was a staunch conservative on questions of sexual morality and made Opus Dei a personal prelature. In 1986, he established World Youth Day - staged at different cities on four continents, it has grown to be the biggest festival for youth in the world.^[159][160] He worked for reconciliation between Catholics and Jews and Muslims - praying at the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem in 2000 and becoming in 2001 the first pope to enter a mosque in an Islamic country. John Paul II was the first pope to visit all the inhabited continents of the world, drawing the largest crowds in history.^[161]

Campaigns for human rights and social justice led to the martyrdom of Catholics during the period - notably in Latin America, where Archbishop Oscar Romero of El Salvador was gunned down at the altar in 1980, and six jesuits of the University of Central America were assassinated in 1989.^[162][163] Catholic nun Mother Teresa of Calcutta was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her humanitarian work among India's poor.^[164] Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo won the same award in 1996 for "work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor".^[165]

Benedict XVI (elected 2005) regularly receives heads of state^[166] and as the representative of the Holy See has permanent observer status at the United Nations.^[167] During his pontificate the German pope has emphasised a need for new evangelization of Europe, where Christianity had declined in influence during the 20th Century.^[168] Over the same period the church saw rapid increases in adherents throughout Asia and Africa and remained the dominant religion of South and Central America.^[169]

Doctrine

The Catholic Church holds that there is one eternal God, who exists as a mutual indwelling of three persons: God the Father; God the Son; and the Holy Spirit, which make up the Trinity. Catholic belief holds that the Church "... is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth."^[170] To Catholics, the term "Church" refers to the people of God, who abide in Christ and who, "... nourished with the Body of Christ, become the Body of Christ."^[171] The Church teaches that the fullness of the "means of salvation" exists only in the Catholic Church but acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to bring people to salvation. It teaches that anyone who is saved is saved indirectly through the Church if the person has invincible ignorance of the Catholic Church and its teachings (as a result of parentage or culture, for example), yet follows the morals God has dictated in his heart and would, therefore, join the Church if he understood its necessity.^[172] It teaches that Catholics are called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity among all Christians.^[172]

According to its doctrine, the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ.^[11] The New Testament records the activities and teaching of Christ's appointment of the twelve Apostles and giving them authority to continue his work.^[11] The Church teaches that Jesus designated Simon Peter as the leader of the apostles by proclaiming "upon this rock I will build my church ...I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven ..."^[172] The Church teaches that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church. All duly consecrated bishops since then are considered the successors to the apostles,^[13] and they hand on the Sacred Tradition received from the apostles.^[173]

According to the Council of Trent, Christ instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Church.^[174] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance), Anointing of the Sick (formerly Extreme Unction or the "Last Rites"), Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are important visible rituals that Catholics see as signs of God's presence and effective channels of God's grace to all those who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).^[175]

Catholics believe that Christ is the Messiah of the Old Testament's Messianic prophecies.^[176] In an event known as the Incarnation, the Church teaches that, through the power of the Holy Spirit, God became united with human nature when Christ was conceived in the womb of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Christ is believed, therefore, to be both fully divine and fully human. It is taught that Christ's mission on earth included giving people his teachings and providing his example for them to follow as recorded in the four Gospels.^[177]

Prayers and devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary are part of Catholic piety but are distinct from the worship of God.^[178] The Church holds Mary, as Perpetual Virgin and Mother of God, in special regard. Catholic beliefs concerning Mary include her Immaculate Conception without the stain of original sin and bodily Assumption into heaven at the end of her life, both of which have been infallibly defined as dogma, by Pope Pius IX in 1854 and Pope Pius XII in 1950 respectively. Mariology deals not only with her life but also her veneration in daily life, prayer and Marian art, music and architecture. Several liturgical Marian feasts are celebrated throughout the Church Year and she is honored with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church, because by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ.^[179] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions, such as the Rosary, the Hail Mary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are common Catholic practices.^[180] The Church has affirmed the credibility of certain Marian apparitions (supernatural experiences of Mary by one or more persons) such as Our Lady of Lourdes, Fátima and Guadalupe,^[181] while others are under investigation and some outright condemned as unworthy of belief.^{[citation needed]} Regardless of their status none of these apparitions, or the messages received from them, are binding on the larger body of the faithful, nor can they add anything to the deposit of faith received from the apostles.^{[citation needed]} Pilgrimages to these sites are popular Catholic devotions.^[182]

Falling into sin is considered the opposite to following Christ, weakening a person's resemblance to God and turning their soul away from his love. Sins range from the less serious venial sins to more serious mortal sins that end a person's relationship with God.^[183] The Church teaches that through the passion (suffering) of Christ and his crucifixion, all people have an opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from sin, and so can be reconciled to God.^[184] The Resurrection of Jesus, according to Catholic belief, gained for humans a possible spiritual immortality previously denied to them because of original sin.^[185] By reconciling with God and following Christ's words and deeds, the Church believes one can enter the Kingdom of God, which is the "... reign of God over people's hearts and lives".^[186]

Christ told his apostles that—after his death and resurrection—he would send them the "Advocate", the "Holy Spirit", who "... will teach you all things".^[187] Catholics believe that they receive the Holy Spirit through the sacrament of Confirmation and that the grace received at baptism is strengthened,^[188] To be properly confirmed, Catholics must be in a state of grace, which means they cannot be conscious of having committed an unconfessed mortal sin.^[189] They must also have prepared spiritually for the sacrament, chosen a sponsor for spiritual support, and selected a saint to be their special patron and intercessor.^[188] In the Eastern Catholic Churches, baptism, including infant baptism, is immediately followed by Confirmation—referred to as Chrismation^[190]—and the reception of the Eucharist.^[189]

After baptism, Catholics may obtain forgiveness for subsequent sins through the sacrament of Reconciliation (Penance or Confession).^[191] In this sacrament, an individual confesses his sins to a priest, who then offers advice and imposes a particular penance to be performed. The priest administers absolution, formally forgiving the person of his sins.^[192] The priest is forbidden—under penalty of excommunication—to reveal any sin or disclosure heard under the seal of confession.^[193] An indulgence may be granted by the church after the sinner has confessed and received absolution for their sins. An indugence is believed to effect a partial or full remission (known as a plenary indulgence) of the temporal punishment still due for them in Purgatory.^[194]

The Church teaches that, immediately after death, the soul of each person will receive a particular judgment from God, based on the deeds of that individual's earthly life.^[189] This teaching also attests to another day when Christ will sit in a universal judgment of all mankind. This final judgment, according to Church teaching, will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.^[189] The basis on which each person's soul is judged is detailed in the Gospel of Matthew, which lists works of mercy to be performed even to people considered "the least".^[195] Emphasis is upon Christ's words that "Not everyone who says to me, 'Lord, Lord,' shall enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does the will of my Father who is in heaven".^[196] According to the Catechism, "The Last Judgement will reveal even to its furthest consequences the good each person has done or failed to do during his earthly life."^[196] Depending on the judgement rendered, a soul may enter one of three states of afterlife. Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.^[189] Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven.^[189] Souls in purgatory may be aided in reaching heaven by the prayers of the faithful on earth and by the intercession of saints.^[197] Finally, those who chose to live a sinful and selfish life, did not repent, and fully intended to persist in their ways are sent to hell, an everlasting separation from God.^[189] The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God.^[189] No one is predestined to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.^[189] Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved.^[198] Some Catholic theologians have speculated that the souls of unbaptised infants who die in original sin are assigned to limbo although this is not an official doctrine of the Church.^[199]

Catholic beliefs are summarized in the Nicene Creed and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.^[200][201] Based on the promises of Christ in the Gospels, the Church believes that it is continually guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected infallibly from falling into doctrinal error.^[172] The Catholic Church teaches that the Holy Spirit reveals God's truth through Sacred Scripture, Sacred Tradition and the Magisterium.^{[citation needed]} Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 book Catholic Bible. This is made up of the 46 books found in the ancient Greek version of the Old Testament—known as the Septuagint^[202]—and the 27 New Testament writings first found in the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 and listed in Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter.^{[203] [note 3]} Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.^[204] Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith" (depositum fidei). These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium (from magister, Latin for "teacher"), the Church's teaching authority, which is exercised by the pope and the College of Bishops in union with the pope.^[205]

Traditions of worship

Differing liturgical traditions, or rites, exist throughout the Catholic Church, reflecting historical and cultural diversity rather than differences in beliefs.^[206] The most commonly used liturgy is the Roman Rite, but even in the Latin Catholic Church a few other rites are in use, and the Eastern Catholic Churches have distinct rites. Two forms of the Roman Rite are authorized at present: that of the post-1969 editions of the Roman Missal (Mass of Paul VI), which is now the ordinary form of the rite and is celebrated mostly in the vernacular, i.e., the language of the people; and that of the 1962 edition (the Tridentine Mass), now an extraordinary form).^{[207][note 4]} In the United States, certain "Anglican Use" parishes use a variation of the Roman rite that retains many aspects of the Anglican liturgical rites.^{[note 5]}Implementation is still awaited of the authorization granted in 2009 for the creation wherever appropriate of ordinariates for Anglicans who enter into communion with the Church and who may then use a rite that incorporates elements of Anglican tradition.^[208] Other Western rites (non-Roman) include the Ambrosian Rite and the Mozarabic Rite. The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches include the Byzantine rite, the Alexandrian or Coptic rite, the Syriac rite, the Armenian rite, the Maronite rite, and the Chaldean rite.

The Eucharist, or Mass, is the center of Catholic worship.^[209] The Words of Institution for this sacrament are drawn from the Gospels and a Pauline letter.^[210] Catholics believe that at each Mass, the bread and wine become supernaturally transubstantiated into the true Body and Blood of Christ. The Church teaches that Christ established a New Covenant with humanity through the institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper. Because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,^[207] there are strict rules about its celebration and reception. Catholics must abstain from eating for at least an hour before receiving Communion.^[211] Those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden from this sacrament unless they have received absolution through the sacrament of Reconciliation (Penance).^[211] Catholics are not permitted to receive communion in Protestant churches because of their different beliefs and practices regarding Holy Orders and the Eucharist.^[212]

Organization and demographics

Hierarchy, personnel and institutions

The Church's hierarchy is headed by the Pope.^[213] Catholics give many titles to the Pope, including Bishop of Rome, successor to Saint Peter, Prince of the Apostles, Pontifex Maximus, Vicar of Christ and Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church.^[214] In the Church, the Pope holds primacy of jurisdiction in matters of faith, morals, discipline and Church governance and is the head of state of the Vatican City.^[215] For advice and assistance in governing, the Pope may turn to the College of Cardinals, the next highest level in the hierarchy.^[216] When a pope dies or resigns,^{[note 6]} members of the College of Cardinals who are under age 80 meet to elect a new pope.^[218] Although the papal conclave can theoretically elect any male Catholic as pope, since 1389 only cardinals have been elevated to that position.^[219]

The Catholic Church comprised, as of 2008, 2,795 dioceses,^[220] each overseen by a bishop. Dioceses are divided into individual communities called parishes, each staffed by one or more priests.^[221] Priests may be assisted by deacons. All clergy, including deacons, priests, and bishops, may preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct funeral liturgies.^[222] Only priests and bishops are allowed to administer the sacraments of the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance) and Anointing of the Sick.^[223][224] Only bishops can administer the sacrament of Holy Orders, which ordains someone into the clergy.^[225]

The Church has defined rules on who may be ordained into the clergy. In the Latin Rite, the priesthood is generally restricted to celibate men^[226][227] who lack deeply-rooted homosexual tendencies.^[228] Men who are already married may be ordained in the Eastern Catholic Churches,^[229] and may become deacons in any rite.^[226][227] According to the Vatican, as of 2007 there were 408,024 priests, an increase of 0.18% over 2005. The number of priests had decreased in Europe (6.8%) and Oceania (5.5%), remained roughly the same in the Americas, and increased in Africa (27.6%) and Asia (21.1%).^[230]

Ordained Catholics, as well as members of the laity, may enter consecrated life as monks or nuns. A candidate takes vows confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience.^[231] Most monks and nuns join a monastic or religious order,^[231] such as the Benedictines, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, and the Sisters of Mercy.^[231]

Membership

Church membership in 2007 was 1.147 billion people,^[230] increasing from the 1950 figure of 437 million^[232] and the 1970 figure of 654 million.^[233]

On 31 December 2008, membership was 1,166 million, an increase of 11.54% over the same date in 2000, only slightly greater than the rate of increase of the world population (10.77%). The increase was 33.02% in Africa, but only 1.17% in Europe. It was 15,91% in Asia, 11.39% in Oceania, and 10.93% in America. As a result, Catholics were 17.77% of the total population in Africa, 63.10% in America, 3.05% in Asia, 39.97% in Europe, 26.21% in Oceania, and 17.40% of the world population. Of the world's Catholics, the proportion living in Africa grew from 12.44% in 2000 to 14.84% in 2008, while those living in Europe fell from 26.81% to 24.31%.^[1]

Membership of the Catholic Church is attained through baptism.^[234] If someone formally leaves the Church, that fact is noted in the register of the person's baptism.

Notes

1. ^ The empire's well-defined network of roads and waterways allowed for easier travel, while the Pax Romana made it safe to travel from one region to another. The government had encouraged inhabitants, especially those in urban areas, to learn Greek, and the common language allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood. (Bokenkotter, p. 24.)
2. ^ The Roman Curia is a "bureaucracy that assists the pope in his responsibilities of governing the universal Church. Although early in the history of the Church bishops of Rome had assistants to help them in the exercise of their ministry, it was not until 1588 that formal organization of the Roman Curia was accomplished by Pope Sixtus V. The most recent reorganization of the Curia was completed in 1988 by Pope John Paul II in his apostolic constitution Pastor Bonus".^[82] The Curia functioned as the civil government of the Papal States until 1870.^[83]
3. ^ The 73-book Catholic Bible contains the Deuterocanonicals, books not in the modern Hebrew Bible and not upheld as canonical by most Protestants.^[202] The process of determining which books were to be considered part of the canon took many centuries and was not finally resolved in the Catholic Church until the Council of Trent.
4. ^ The Tridentine Mass, so called because standardized by Pope Pius V after the Council of Trent in the 16th century, was the ordinary form of the Roman-Rite Mass until superseded in 1969 by the Roman Missal of Paul VI; its continued use, in the version found in the 1962 edition of the Missal, is authorized by the 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum.
5. ^ In 1980, Pope John Paul II issued a pastoral provision that allows establishment of personal parishes in which members of the Episcopal Church (the U.S. branch of the Anglican Communion) who join the Catholic Church retain many aspects of Anglican liturgical rites as a variation of the Roman rite. Such "Anglican Use" parishes exist only in the United States.
6. ^ The last resignation occurred in 1415, as part of the Council of Constance's resolution of the Avignon Papacy.^[217]

References

1. ^ ^{a b} "Number of Catholics on the Rise". Zenit News Agency. 27 April 2010. http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29058. Retrieved 2 May 2010. . For greater details on numbers of Catholics and priests and their distribution by continent and for changes between 2000 and 2008, see "Annuario Statistico della Chiesa dell'anno 2008". Holy See Press Office. 27 April 2010. http://212.77.1.245/news_services/bulletin/news/25451.php?index=25451&lang=it. Retrieved 2 May 2010. (in Italian)
2. ^ Annuario Pontificio 2009, p. 1172.
3. ^ http://in.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idINIndia-45364720100113
4. ^ O'Collins, p. v (preface).
5. ^ McCulloch, p. 127.
6. ^ ^{a b} McBrien, Richard (2008). The Church. Harper Collins. p. xvii. Online version available here. Quote: "[T]he use of the adjective 'Catholic' as a modifier of 'Church' became divisive only after the East-West Schism ...and the Protestant Reformation ...In the former case, the West claimed for itself the title Catholic Church, while the East appropriated the name Holy Orthodox Church. In the latter case, those in communion with the Bishop of Rome retained the adjective "Catholic", while the churches that broke with the Papacy were called Protestant."
7. ^ Libreria Editrice Vaticana (2003). "Catechism of the Catholic Church." Retrieved on: 2009-05-01.
8. ^ The Vatican. Documents of the II Vatican Council. Retrieved on: 2009-05-04. Note: The Pope's signature appears in the Latin version.
9. ^ Example: 1977 Agreement with Archbishop Donald Coggan of Canterbury
10. ^ "The Catholic Church is also called the Roman Church to emphasize that the centre of unity, which is an essential for the Universal Church, is in the Roman See" (Thomas J. O'Brien, An Advanced Catechism (1901, reprinted 2009, p. 70). Retrieved on 2010-03-26.
11. ^ ^{a b c} Kreeft, p. 980.
12. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 30.
13. ^ ^{a b} Barry, p. 46.
14. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 24.
15. ^ Chadwick, Henry, pp. 23–24.
16. ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 109.
17. ^ McMullen, pp. 37, 83.
18. ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, pp.127–131.
19. ^ Duffy, pp. 9–10.
20. ^ Markus, p. 75.
21. ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 134.
22. ^ Duffy, p. 18.
23. ^ Chadwick, Henry, p. 37.
24. ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 141.
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28. ^ Davidson, p. 169, p. 181.
29. ^ Davidson, p. 341.
30. ^ Wilken, p. 286.
31. ^ M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, Volume 7, page 45a.
32. ^ Herring, p. 60.
33. ^ Wilken, p. 283.
34. ^ Collins, pp. 61–62.
35. ^ D. MacCulloch BBC TV A history of Christianity, episode Two
36. ^ Duffy, p. 35.
37. ^ Ware, p. 142.
38. ^ Noble, p. 214.
39. ^ "Rome (early Christian)." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
40. ^ Le Goff, p. 14
41. ^ Le Goff, p. 21
42. ^ Woods, p. 27
43. ^ Le Goff, p. 120
44. ^ Duffy, p. 69
45. ^ Vidmar, p. 94
46. ^ Woods 2005, pp. 116–118
47. ^ Bauer, p. 393
48. ^ Duffy, pp. 63–78.
49. ^ Johnson, p. 18
50. ^ Duffy, p. 91
51. ^ Collins, p. 103
52. ^ ^{a b} Bokenkotter, pp. 140–141
53. ^ Duffy, pp. 88–89.
54. ^ Noble, pp. 286–287
55. ^ MacCulloch, The Reformation, pp. 26-27
56. ^ Riley-Smith, p. 8
57. ^ Norman, pp. 62–66
58. ^ Henry Charles Lea, 'A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages', Volume 1, (1888), p. 145, quote: "The murder of the legate Pierre de Castelnau sent a thrill of horror throughout Christendom...Of its details, however, the accounts are so contradictory that it is impossible to speak of it with precision."
59. ^ Morris, p. 214
60. ^ Le Goff, p. 87
61. ^ Woods, pp. 44–48
62. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 158–159
63. ^ Duffy, p. 122
64. ^ ^{a b} Morris, p. 232
65. ^ ^{a b} MacCulloch, The Restoration, pp. 37-38
66. ^ MacCulloch, The Restoration, pp. 34-36
67. ^ Bokenkotter, p.201
68. ^ Duffy, p. 149
69. ^ MacCulloch, The Restoration, p. 41
70. ^ Norman, p. 86
71. ^ ^{a b} Bokenkotter, p. 215
72. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 223–224
73. ^ Vidmar, p.233
74. ^ ^{a b} Bokenkotter, p. 233
75. ^ Duffy, pp. 177–178
76. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 235–237
77. ^ Schama, pp. 309–311
78. ^ Noble, p. 519
79. ^ Solt, p. 149
80. ^ Judith F. Champ, 'Catholicism', in John Cannon (ed.), The Oxford Companion to British History, rev. ed. (Oxford: University Press, 2002), p. 176
81. ^ ^{a b} Bokenkotter, pp. 242–244
82. ^ Lahey, p. 1125
83. ^ "Brief Overview of the Administrative History of the Holy See". University of Michigan. 5 July 2007. http://bentley.umich.edu/academic/vatican/overview.php. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
84. ^ Murray, p. 45
85. ^ Norman, pp. 91–92
86. ^ Norman, p. 94
87. ^ Johnson, p. 87
88. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 251
89. ^ ^{a b} Duffy, pp. 188–191
90. ^ Koschorke, p. 13, p. 283
91. ^ Hastings (1994), p. 72
92. ^ Noble, pp. 450–451
93. ^ Koschorke, p. 287
94. ^ Johansen, p. 109, p. 110, quote: "In the Americas, the Catholic priest Bartolomé de las Casas avidly encouraged enquiries into the Spanish conquest's many cruelties. Las Casas chronicled Spanish brutality against the Native peoples in excruciating detail."
95. ^ Koschorke, p.287
96. ^ Chadwick, Owen, p. 327
97. ^ Dussel, p. 45, pp. 52–53, quote: "The missionary Church opposed this state of affairs from the beginning, and nearly everything positive that was done for the benefit of the indigenous peoples resulted from the call and clamor of the missionaries. The fact remained, however, that widespread injustice was extremely difficult to uproot ... Even more important than Bartolomé de Las Casas was the Bishop of Nicaragua, Antonio de Valdeviso, who ultimately suffered martyrdom for his defense of the Indian."
98. ^ Koschorke, p. 21
99. ^ Koschorke, p. 3, p. 17
100. ^ Koschorke, pp. 31–32
101. ^ McManners, p. 318
102. ^ McManners, p. 328
103. ^ Duffy, p. 193
104. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 295
105. ^ Norman, pp. 111–112
106. ^ ^{a b} Pollard, pp. 7–8
107. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 283–285
108. ^ Collins, p. 176
109. ^ Duffy, pp. 214–216
110. ^ http://svdpla.org/index.php/about/contents/history
111. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02113b.htm
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118. ^ Bethell, pp. 528–529
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120. ^ Hamnett, pp. 163–164
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123. ^ Leith, p. 143
124. ^ Fahlbusch, p. 729
125. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 306–307
126. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 386–387
127. ^ Hastings, pp. 397–410
128. ^ ^{a b} Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265
129. ^ Scheina, p. 33.
130. ^ Riasanovsky 617
131. ^ Riasanovsky 634
132. ^ Payne, p. 13
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134. ^ Rhodes, p. 182-183
135. ^ Rhodes, p. 197
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152. ^ Bauckham, p. 373
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155. ^ Bruni, p. 336
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171. ^ CCC, section 777, 778
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173. ^ CCC, section 76
174. ^ CCC, section 1131
175. ^ Kreeft, pp. 298–299
176. ^ Kreeft, pp. 71–72
177. ^ McGrath, pp. 4–6.
178. ^ Schreck, p. 199–200
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181. ^ Schreck, p. 368
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184. ^ CCC, section 608
185. ^ Schreck, p. 113.
186. ^ Barry, p. 26
187. ^ John 14:26
188. ^ ^{a b} Schreck, p. 230
189. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i} CCC, sec. 1310, 1319
190. ^ Faulk, p. 77
191. ^ Schreck, p. 242
192. ^ Kreeft, pp. 343–344
193. ^ CCC, sections 1310, 1385
194. ^ Code of Canon Law, (Cann. 992–997) Indulgences; Enchiridion Indulgentiarum, 4th ed., 1999
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196. ^ ^{a b} Schreck, p. 397
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203. ^ Schreck, p. 23
204. ^ Schreck, pp. 15–19
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209. ^ CCC, sections 1324–1331
210. ^ See Luke 22:19, Matthew 26:27–28, Mark 14:22–24, 1Corinthians 11:24–25
211. ^ ^{a b} Kreeft, p. 331
212. ^ CCC, section 1400
213. ^ Kreeft, p. 109.
214. ^ Bunson 2008, p. 273.
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217. ^ Duffy (1997), p. 415
218. ^ Duffy (1997), p. 416
219. ^ Duffy (1997), pp. 417–8
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221. ^ Barry, p. 52
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225. ^ Barry, p. 114.
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